TEHRAN - Throughout human history, defensive fortresses have played a vital role in protecting communities and cities from attacks.

Iran is home to many incredible castles, fortresses, and citadels that have withstood the test of time. These structures, built centuries ago, bear witness to folios of Iran’s rich history and architectural achievements.

In fact, many fortresses in Iran were constructed in response to foreign invasions and served as bastions of defense, with the primary function of providing a secure refuge for people in times of danger.

They were normally erected and maintained along significant routes or cities, particularly at heights overlooking steep slopes or cliffs.

Many of the fortifications in the country were built using mud brick, often leaving them no more than mounds of dirt for today’s archaeologists.

Here are brief introductions to a selection of 15 ancient defensive fortresses constructed across the Iranian soil.

Manujan fortress

Made of stones, mudbricks, and special traditional mortar, Manujan fortress is nestled on top of a smooth natural rock and in the heart of a town of the same name in Kerman province, which is bounded by the provinces of Fars on the west, Yazd on the north, South Khorasan on the northeast, Sistan-Baluchestan on the east, and Hormozgan on the south.

The fort is estimated to date from the Sassanid era. Previous excavations conducted in and around the monument yielded a special kind of pottery as well as pieces of jewelry and glassware works that throw light on the history of the rampart.

Falak-ol-Aflak fortress

Falak-ol-Aflak is an unmissable eight-towered fortress that dominates the skyline of Khorramabad, the capital of Lorestan province.

The monument seems particularly imposing and dramatic when floodlit at night, offering picturesque views of its encircling crenelated battlements. It dates back to the Sassanid era (224–651).

Qaleh Babak

Nested atop a pick in northwest Iran, Qaleh Babak is named after Babak Khorramdin, an Iranian national hero, warlord, and revolutionary leader who fought against Arab invaders until he died in 838 CE.

Ascending the mount to set foot on the ancient fort seems somewhat arduous for many visitors, but in most cases proves to be a considerable and gratifying experience.

The crumbling rampart consists of several stone towers and lodging areas stretched in a space of nearly ten thousand square meters and the origins of the monument are said to date from the Sassanid era (224–651).

Izadkhast fortress

Izadkhast, a Sassanid-era fortification in the southern province of Fars, was built on the ancient Silk Road between Isfahan and Shiraz and is reportedly the first fortress in the world that is made of adobe.

It is reportedly the second-largest adobe building in the world after Arg-e Bam (Bam Citadel) in the southeastern province of Kerman.

The fort collectively with its surrounding landscapes has been nominated to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List since 2007 in the cultural category.

Qa’leh Dokhtar

Situated on a mountain slope neighboring the Firouzabad-Kavar road in southeastern Kerman province, Qal’eh Dokhtar (literally meaning the Maiden Castle) was made by Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian Empire (224–651) in 209 CE.

Based on narratives, the monument is named after the ancient Iranian goddess Anahita, to whom the term “Maiden” refers.

The entrance to the rampart is through a tall gateway within a large rectangular tower. Inside, a broad stairway leads up to a rectangular hall, with blind niches on either side of two large buttresses at the east end.

It embraces many of the recurring features of Sasanian architecture, such as long halls, arches, domes, recessed windows, and stairways.

Qaleh Alamut

Nested on top of a hill in the Alborz mountain range, Qaleh Alamut was once sheltering the followers of Hasan-e Sabbah (1070–1124), spiritual leader of Islam’s heretical Ismaili sect, known as ‘Assassins’.

In popular myth, Sabbah led a bizarre, much-feared mercenary organization whose members were dispatched to murder or kidnap leading political and religious figures of the day.

In the early 1930s, British-Italian explorer and travel writer Freya Stark described her exploration of the place in her book “The Valleys of the Assassins”.

Qaleh Rudkhan

Occupying an area of about 50,000 square meters, this medieval structure is located 25 km southwest of Foman in Gilan province.

The vast fortress, which is made of brick and stone, has been built on two sides of a jagged rocky region so its architecture benefits from natural mountainous features.

Preliminary evidence, uncovered by digging, indicates the foundation of the structure was built in the Sasanian era (224–651) and rebuilt in the Seljuks' reign (ca. 1040–1157).

Seb fortress

The historical fortress of Seb stands tall in a village of the same name in southeastern Sistan-Baluchestan province.

The monument was extensively used during the Qajar era (1789–1925) as a borderline surveillance base. However, narratives say that its heyday dates back to the time of the Safavids (1501–1736).

The rampart is constructed of clay and mortar blended with loads of sticky plant seeds. In some parts wooden slabs cut from palm trees have been used to strengthen the overall layout, enabling it to withstand natural disasters in particular mellow seismic vibrations.

Arg-e Bam

The UNESCO-designated Bam citadel (locally called “Arg-e Bam”) and its cultural landscape is highly regarded as an outstanding example of an ancient fortified settlement built in vernacular technique using mud layers.

Located on the southern edge of the Iranian high plateau, in Kerman province, the massive fortress and its environs were almost completely brought down to earth due to a devastating earthquake on December 26, 2003.

Most of what visitors now see at the site is restored and replicas of the original structure have been restored from 2004 onwards.

The origins of the adobe fortress can be traced back to the Achaemenid period (6th to 4th centuries BC) and even beyond.

Susa castle

Situated in the ruins of the ancient city of Susa (which is situated near the modern city of Shush) in Khuzestan province, southern Iran, this gorgeous castle resembles medieval monuments in France.

The construction of the Susa Castle was started in 1897 by the French civil engineer, geologist, and archaeologist Jacques Jean-Marie de Morgan (1857-1924), who had come to Iran to carry out excavations in the region. Bricks dating back to various historical eras, which had been scattered at the Susa region’s ancient sites of Haft-Tappeh and Chogha Zanbil, were used in building the castle.

Arg-e Rayen

Covering an area of about 20,000 square meters, Arg-e Rayen was inhabited until some 150 years ago. It is estimated to date at least 1,000 years. The mudbrick castle is named after the ancient city of Rayen, which lies on the margins of a harsh desert under the glare of the blazing sun.

So far, the adobe fort has withstood several earthquakes and other natural disasters, which have flattened similar nearby structures. The history of life in Rayen goes back to the times of the Sasanian dynasty and even deeper in time.

Portuguese castle of Hormuz

The crumbling Portuguese castle of Hormuz Island is a reminder of colonial rule in the Persian Gulf. Built in the early 16th century, the monument is now a tourist attraction where you can soak up the silence while traveling through time. For visitors, it seems to be easy to imagine the hustle and bustle of Portuguese military forces five centuries ago!

Its construction was ordered by Commander Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507 after his troops captured the island months before.

Iraj fort

Located in the Pishva county near the gates of the old city of Rey, southeast of Tehran, the Iraj fort (also known as Gabri fort by the locals) was once one of the largest military fortresses of the time.

Covering some 3,000 square meters in area, the fortress lost its towers some centuries ago – maybe by erosion, and only lengthy and tall clay ramparts have been left. Based on evidence from excavations in 2008, archaeologists believe that the Iraj fortress was likely abandoned shortly after construction.

Some estimates suggest that the crumbling fortress dates from the Sassanid era (224–651), however, there are other views suggesting it belongs to the Kayanian dynasty era, a semi-mythological dynasty, which is mentioned in the Persian poet Ferdowsi’s magnum opus, the Shahnameh.

Zahhak castle

Constructed around 2000 BC, Zahhak castle served as a government building and a fire temple during the later Parthian era (247 BC – 224 CE).

Located in northwest Iran, near Hashtroud, the castle served as a military defense during the Parthian era given its position close to the Iranian border with other nations in the northwest, including Turkey and Armenia.

It contains depictions of animals and symbols that show what life was like for royalty in ancient Iran. It includes a square-shaped hall made of bricks built during the Parthia period. During this time, Zoroastrianism was the religion of the ruling kings, who likely used part of the castle for a fire temple.

Narin fortress

Local legend has it that the Narin fort belonged to King Solomon and was built by jinns (spirits), but whatever the original provenance of the castle's foundations, most of what can be seen today dates from the Sassanian era.

Lying on the Silk Route, the rampart rises imposingly above the historical core of Meybod in central Iran.

The structure was used by soldiers who provided an armed escort for passing caravans, charging a tax for their services, historical sources say.

AFM